Immunology

Type 1 diabetes mellitus (type 1 DM) is an autoimmune disease. Although genome-wide association studies (GWAS) and meta-analyses have successfully identified numerous type 1 DM-associated susceptibility loci, the underlying mechanisms for these susceptibility loci are currently largely unclear.

BACKGROUND: Asthma in a mouse model spontaneously resolves after cessation of allergen exposure. We developed a mouse model in which asthma features persisted for 6 months after cessation of allergen exposure. OBJECTIVE: We sought to elucidate factors contributing to the persistence of asthma. METHODS: We used a combination of immunologic, genetic, microarray, and pharmacologic approaches to dissect the mechanism of asthma persistence. RESULTS: Elimination of T cells though antibody-mediated depletion or lethal irradiation and transplantation of recombination-activating gene (Rag1)(-/-) bone marrow in mice with chronic asthma resulted in resolution of airway inflammation but not airway hyperreactivity or remodeling. Elimination of T cells and type 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2s) through lethal irradiation and transplantation of Rag2(-/-)£^c(-/-) bone marrow or blockade of IL-33 resulted in resolution of airway inflammation and hyperreactivity. Persistence of asthma required multiple interconnected feedback and feed-forward circuits between ILC2s and epithelial cells. Epithelial IL-33 induced ILC2s, a rich source of IL-13. The latter directly induced epithelial IL-33, establishing a positive feedback circuit. IL-33 autoinduced, generating another feedback circuit. IL-13 upregulated IL-33 receptors and facilitated IL-33 autoinduction, thus establishing a feed-forward circuit. Elimination of any component of these circuits resulted in resolution of chronic asthma. In agreement with the foregoing, IL-33 and ILC2 levels were increased in the airways of asthmatic patients. IL-33 levels correlated with disease severity. CONCLUSIONS: We present a critical network of feedback and feed-forward interactions between epithelial cells and ILC2s involved in maintaining chronic asthma. Although T cells contributed to the severity of chronic asthma, they were redundant in maintaining airway hyperreactivity and remodeling.

Nogo-B, a member of the reticulon 4 protein family, plays a critical role in tissue repair and acute inflammation. Its role in acute lung injury (ALI) remains unclear. Here, we assessed the function of Nogo-B during tissue injury in a lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced ALI mouse model. We found that pulmonary Nogo-B was significantly repressed after LPS instillation in C57BL/6 mice. Over-expression of pulmonary Nogo-B using an adenovirus vector carrying the Nogo-B-RFP-3flag gene (Ad-Nogo-B) significantly prolonged the survival of mice challenged with a lethal dose of LPS. The Ad-Nogo-B-treated mice also had less severe lung injury, less alveolar protein exudation, and a higher number of macrophages but less neutrophil infiltration compared with Ad-RFP-treated mice. Interestingly, microarray analysis showed that the Ad-Nogo-B-treated mice had different gene expression profiles compared with the controls and the prominent expression of genes related to wound healing and the humoral immune response after LPS induction. Of the 49 differently expressed genes, we found that the expression of PTX3 was significantly up-regulated following Nogo-B over-expression as observed in lung tissues and RAW264.7 cells. In conclusion, Nogo-B plays a protective role against LPS-induced ALI, and this effect might be exerted through the modulation of alveolar macrophage recruitment and PTX3 production.

Background and Aims: It is known that postnatal functional maturation of the small intestine is facilitated by microbial colonization of the gut. Preterm infants exhibit defects in gut maturation, weak innate immunity against intestinal infection and increased susceptibility to inflammatory disorders, all of which may be related to the inappropriate microbial colonization of their immature intestines. The earliest microbes to colonize the preterm infant gut encounter a naïve, immature intestine. Thus this earliest microbiota potentially has the greatest opportunity to fundamentally influence intestinal development and immune function. The aim of this study was to characterize the effect of early microbial colonization on global gene expression in the distal small intestine during postnatal gut development. Methods: Gnotobiotic mouse models with experimental colonization by early (prior to two weeks of life) intestinal microbiota from preterm human infants were utilized. Microarray analysis was used to assess global gene expression in the intestinal epithelium. Results and Conclusion: Multiple intestinal genes involved in metabolism, cell cycle regulation, cell-cell or cell-extracellular matrix communication, and immune function are developmental- and intestinal microbiota- regulated. Using a humanized gnotobiotic mouse model, we demonstrate that certain early preterm infant microbiota from prior to 2 weeks of life specifically induce increased NF-£eB activation and a phenotype of increased inflammation whereas other preterm microbiota specifically induce decreased NF-£eB activation. These fundamental differences correlate with altered clinical outcomes and suggest the existence of optimal early microbial communities to improve health outcomes.

Effector but not naive regulatory T cells (Treg cells) can accumulate in the peripheral blood as well as the tumor microenvironment, expand during tumor progression and be one of the main suppressors for antitumor immunity. However, the underlying mechanisms for effector Treg cell expansion in tumor are still unknown. We demonstrate that effector Treg cell-mediated suppression of antitumor CD8⁺ T cells is tumor-nonspecific. Furthermore, TNFR2 expression is increased in these Treg cells by Affymetrix chip analysis which was confirmed by monoclonal antibody staining in both hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and colorectal cancer (CRC) patients and murine models. Correspondingly, increased levels of TNF-α in both tissue and serum were also demonstrated. Interestingly, TNF-α could not only expand effector Treg cells through TNFR2 signaling, but also enhanced their suppressive activity against antitumor immunity of CD8⁺ T cells. Furthermore, targeting TNFR2 signaling with a TNF-α inhibitor could selectively reduce rapid resurgence of effector Treg cells after cyclophosphamide-induced lymphodepletion and markedly inhibit the growth of established tumors. Herein, we propose a novel mechanism in which TNF-α could promote tumor-associated effector Treg cell expansion and suggest a new cancer immunotherapy strategy using TNF-α inhibitors to reduce effector Treg cells expansion after cyclophosphamide-induced lymphodepletion.

Mitis-group streptococci are ubiquitous oral commensals that can promote polybacterial biofilm virulence. Using a novel murine oral mucosal co-infection model we sought to determine for the first time whether these organisms promote the virulence of C. albicans mucosal biofilms in oropharyngeal infection and explored mechanisms of pathogenic synergy. We found that Streptococcus oralis colonization of the oral and gastrointestinal tract was augmented in the presence of C. albicans. S. oralis and C. albicans co-infection significantly augmented the frequency and size of oral thrush lesions. Importantly, S. oralis promoted deep organ dissemination of C. albicans. Whole mouse genome tongue microarray analysis showed that when compared with animals infected with one organism, the doubly infected animals had genes in the major categories of neutrophilic response/chemotaxis/inflammation significantly upregulated, indicative of an exaggerated inflammatory response. This response was dependent on TLR2 signalling since oral lesions, transcription of pro-inflammatory genes and neutrophil infiltration, were attenuated in TLR2-/- animals. Furthermore, S. oralis activated neutrophils in a TLR2-dependent manner in vitro. In summary, this study identifies a previously unrecognized pathogenic synergy between oral commensal bacteriaand C. albicans. This is the first report of the ability of mucosal commensal bacteria to modify the virulence of an opportunistic fungal pathogen.

Type 1 Diabetes (T1D) is considered to be a T-helper- (Th-) 1 autoimmune disease; however, T1D pathogenesis likely involves many factors, and sufficient tools for autoreactive T cell detection for the study of this disease are currently lacking. In this study, using gene expression microarrays, we analysed the effect of diabetes-associated autoantigens on peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) with the purpose of identifying (pre)diabetes-associated cell processes. Twelve patients with recent onset T1D, 18 first-degree relatives of the TD1 patients (DRL; 9/18 autoantibody positive), and 13 healthy controls (DV) were tested. PBMCs from these individuals were stimulated with a cocktail of diabetes-associated autoantigens (proinsulin, IA-2, and GAD65-derived peptides). After 72 hours, gene expression was evaluated by high-density gene microarray. The greatest number of functional differences was observed between relatives and controls (69 pathways), from which 15% of the pathways belonged to ¡§immune response-related¡¨ processes. In the T1D versus controls comparison, more pathways (24%) were classified as ¡§immune response-related.¡¨ Important pathways that were identified using data from the T1D versus controls comparison were pathways involving antigen presentation by MHCII, the activation of Th17 and Th22 responses, and cytoskeleton rearrangement-related processes. Genes involved in Th17 and TGF-beta cascades may represent novel, promising (pre)diabetes biomarkers.

Although various pharmacological activities of the shikonins have been documented, understanding of the hierarchical regulation of these diverse bio-activities at the genome level is unsubstantiated. In this study, through cross-examination between transcriptome and microRNA array analyses, we predicted that topical treatment of shikonin in vivo affects epithelial¡Vmesenchymal transition (EMT) and the expression of related microRNAs, including 200a, 200b, 200c, 141, 205 and 429 microRNAs, in mouse skin tissues. In situ immunohistological analyses further demonstrated that specific EMT regulatory molecules are enhanced in shikonin-treated epidermal tissues. RT-PCR analyses subsequently confirmed that shikonin treatment downregulated expression of microRNA-205 and other members of the 200 family microRNAs. Further, expression of two RNA targets of the 200 family microRNAs in EMT regulation, Sip1 (Zeb2) and Tcf8 (Zeb1), were consistently upregulated by shikonin treatment. Enhancement of these EMT activities was also detected in shikonin-treated wounds, which repaired faster than controls. These results suggest that topical treatment with shikonin can confer a potent stimulatory effect on EMT and suppress the expression of the associated microRNAs in skin wound-healing. These cellular and molecular evidences support our previous findings on the specific pharmacological effects of shikonin in wound-healing and immune-modulation.

Non-typeable Haemophilus influenzae (NTHi) causes acute otitis media (AOM) in young children. In our recent paper in Microbes and Infection we described the transcriptome signature elicited from PBMCs at onset of AOM caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae. In the current study we found very different results with NTHi AOM infections; 5.1% of 29 187 genes were differentially regulated by more than 2-fold at the onset of AOM compared with the pre-infection healthy state in the same children. Among the 1487 transcripts, 100 genes associated with the immune defense response were specifically analyzed. About half of the differentially regulated genes associated with antibacterial activity and the cell-mediated immune response were activated and half were suppressed. The important signatures for NTHi in children suggested that the balance of the immune response was toward suppression. Moreover, 90% of the genes associated with a pro-inflammatory cytokine response were down-regulated. The genes associated with the classic complement pathway were down-regulated, although the alternative complement pathway genes were up-regulated. These results provide the first human transcriptome data identifying gene expression in the immune response to be predominantly down-regulated at the onset of AOM due to NTHi.

NK cells play a pivotal role in innate immune responses against pathogenic infections. However, the underlying mechanisms driving defined NK functions remain largely elusive. In this study, we identified a novel endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membrane protein, ER adaptor protein (ERAdP), which is constitutively expressed in human and mouse NK cells. ERAdP is expressed at low levels in peripheral NK cells of hepatitis B virus-associated hepatocellular carcinoma patients. We show that ERAdP initiates NK cell activation through the NF-£eB pathway. Notably, ERAdP interacts with ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme 13 (Ubc13) to potentiate its charging activity. Thus, ERAdP augments Ubc13-mediated NF-£eB essential modulator ubiquitination to trigger the Ubc13-mediated NF-£eB pathway, leading to NK cell activation. Finally, ERAdP transgenic mice display hyperactivated NK cells that are more resistant to pathogenic infections. Therefore, understanding the mechanism of ERAdP-mediated NK cell activation will provide strategies for treatment of infectious diseases.